Rhetoric

The senses (sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste) have a strong connection to emotion and memory. Some senses are fairly easy to describe such as the rough grain of freshly sawed lumber or the crisp cold of a late fall morning. Others can be quite difficult to describe: How does one describe the smell of fresh-baked bread to a person who has never smelled it before?

The key in descriptive writing is to convey sensory experiences. When done well, the reader feels like they are experiencing what the writer felt.

Figurative language is the usage of comparisons and descriptions that are not meant to be literally true in order to make a point. For a reader to understand figurative language, they often must understand cultural references. Therefore, figurative language can be difficult for some readers, especially those who are reading in a language other than their native language.

Because some sensory experiences can be difficult to express, figurative language can help.

Simile makes a comparison to something else and usually includes the words “like,” or “as.”

All summer long, Ania spent her days in her family’s backyard pool like a fairytale princess, resting on her inflatable rubber ducky.

Metaphor also makes a comparison, but it lacks guiding words to make clear that it is a comparison. The “feeling” of metaphor is that the example is the term or concept being explained.

The ducky was a comforting friend as the breeze moved them gently in a great arc around the pool’s perimeter.

Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration to make a point

The inflatable duck was a monstrous thing, looming over the pool.

An allusion is a reference to a person, work of literature or art, or event. The reader must be familiar with the reference for the allusion to make any sense.

The giant yellow ducky dominated the whole pool: a titan of old residing in a suburban backyard.

Personification is adding human attributes to something that is not human.

The inflatable duck wrapped its rubbery wings around Ania and gave her a big hug.

An Idiom is a phrase that is commonly used to explain or express some other idea. Idioms can be difficult to convey, just because language changes culturally, and it can be difficult to know for sure that the reader is familiar with the idiom.

Ania’s inflatable duck gave up the ghost one stormy day when it blew out of the pool and into a rose bush, which ripped the poor ducky to shreds.

Although description plays a key role in narrative writing, it can be helpful in more formal contexts as well.

In business writing, appropriate description can clarify instructions.

When writing an academic essay, description can evoke emotions and build a connection with the reader. The key is to use description carefully and accurately. Wild, imaginative, descriptions can be more distracting than they are helpful.

Narrative can take many different forms, from people sharing ghost stories around a campfire to a summary of a subject’s experience in a scientific study.

Outside of creative writing, narratives in academic and business writing are expected to be true. In some cases, you may be asked to write about your experience. In other situations, you may need to use narrative to relay the experiences of historical events. Or you may need to use narrative to share a sources’ experience in something like a research study.

Personal narrative

When writing a personal narrative, the key is to share a story and to share it well.
The focus is on you, as the writer, but you must be sure to tie the story to some kind of larger idea. For example, you may share your experience on the first day of college classes as an example of why students need to be prepared for college coursework.
Be sure to use details to capture the reader’s attention. Incorporate description to help build an emotional connection to the reader.

When necessary, include dialogue. Dialogue helps to convey information, but it also conveys character.

Narrative description

Narrative can also be an appropriate approach when describing something like a historical event. For example, in a history class, you may be asked about a certain historical figure, or something that happened in the past. A narrative can be an excellent method of conveying that information in a manner that goes beyond listing the specific details of the event.

Experience as evidence

In certain academic fields, it is common to interview or observe people to gather information. This may be a formal interview, or it may be part of something like a round table meeting in which subjects discuss while the researcher listens and takes notes. One may even complete observational study in which they examine behavior in a controlled environment.

An anecdote (or a short story) from such a process can be quite helpful as cited evidence in a research project.

When using an anecdote as evidence, keep it short and to the point. Don’t share everything the subject has said but just share the brief narrative bit that makes a point.
As a final note, be very careful when conducting interviews or observational studies as part of research. Only do so with the supervision and guidance of your instructor. There are many ethical issues when completing research with people.

A very effective method of preparing to write a narrative is to ask the “five w and h questions.” Who was involved? What happened? Why did the incident happen? Where was it? When did it happen? And how did it happen?

Use effective prewriting strategies to be sure that you have fully explored the details before you start drafting. If the narrative is a complete essay, then carefully choose a thesis statement or main point that ties the narrative in with a larger idea.

Organization

Narratives are usually organized chronologically. However, it can sometimes be a bit more interesting to start in the middle, just before the resolution of the story (often called in medias res) and then jump back to the beginning. One can also start at the end and then jump back to the beginning.

No matter where one starts, the structure should largely be chronological.

When using causality, it is important to consider what you wish to focus on the most. You can put more emphasis on either the cause or the effect, or you can have a more balanced approach.

You must also decide what your focus is in regard to time. Did both the cause and the effect happen in the past? Did the cause happen in the past, and the effect is currently being seen? Is the cause ongoing, even as the effect has already started? Or is something happening now going to cause an effect to occur later?

Events in the past, with an emphasis on the cause:

The War of 1812 led to a shift in how the United States was viewed globally. This eventually culminated in an ascertain of American power after World War Two.

Events in the past, with an emphasis on the effect:

The United States saw a major shift in global influence following World War Two. However, changes in the country’s global standing started with shifts in how the country was viewed globally following the War of 1812.

Ongoing cause and effect:

Changes in clean water access in many countries are creating new opportunities for poor rural communities.

Current cause and future effect:

The newly passed tax code should create a momentary economic boom, but the long-term effect will certainly be increasing economic hardship.

A very common mistake is confusing correlation (that a relationship exists) with causality. Just because two concepts seem to be related in some way does not mean that one has directly caused the other.

For example, there is a long history of research that links single parent households and criminality. This does not, however, mean that being a single parent causes one’s kids to be criminals. As with most sociological phenomena, parenting, partnering, and crime all have many other factors such as geography, income, tradition, economics, and education.

Another common error is mistaking anecdotal evidence for causality.

Anecdotal evidence is people’s personal experience, usually shared through narrative.

Personal narrative can be quite helpful. If a supervisor in a factory needs to report on why one production process has suddenly become much slower than usual, then asking the employees who work directly with that process may provide valuable information.

However, this information must be weighed against other data. If a press operator, Carla, says that the issue is that the new dies for a press are not quite to the correct specifications, this could be the reason.

Carla’s concerns about the press are important. However, she may not know the actual problem. The slowdown could be caused by the dies and the press. Or it could be that Carla doesn’t know how to operate the press, the press is not set right, the material has changed in some way, or something else that has nothing to do with Carla or her press.

The key is to not base a causal claim on a singular anecdote.

When writing an informative essay, the main argument really should be a summary of whatever you are informing the reader about. The thesis should take a stance. You are not trying to solve a problem or change people’s minds.

For example, a thesis statement for an essay about bike lanes could be something like:

Bike lanes are becoming more common in urban areas, so knowing more about them can be helpful, especially if one’s community is considering adding bike lanes.

Note that this thesis is not a definition. Also, it doesn’t take a stance on bike lanes. However, there is a little bit of an argument: “knowing more about them can be helpful.” This is not a stance for or against bike lanes. It certainly doesn’t argue for the solution to a problem. The argument is that the reader should find this topic interesting.

Research is key to effective informative writing. If you try to write about a topic with which you are already familiar, but don’t have any research, then your writing will likely be biased and personal. It takes source material for your writing to be balanced and thorough.

[See the Research section for more about research]

Directions are one of the most common examples of informative writing. If you need to share how to complete a process with a reader, you do not want your personal stance to make the directions unclear. Also, persuasive elements are likely limited to warnings.

When writing directions, be very careful to outline the order of operations early in prewriting. The last thing you want to do is forget a step or give directions out of order.

Also, consider what the reader needs to know before they get to the directions. Are there any materials that are necessary? How about tools? Are there skills that the reader must be comfortable with before they possibly take on this project?

Also consider warnings. Don’t assume anything about what the reader may know about the safety of an activity ahead of time. Also consider warnings about issues that are not safety related, like damage to materials.

Then, develop an outline in which you carefully address where the reader will need to know certain information in order to successfully complete the task. Keep it simple, but don’t overlook any vital information.

Quite a bit is often made of comparing things as opposed to contrasting them. Comparison is often defined as showing what is similar, and contrast denotes what is different.

Knowing the difference between these two terms is necessary. However, to properly compare or contrast you really need to do both. If you just show that two things are similar, then this leaves a question of how they are not the same thing. If you only show that two things are different, then there is a question of why you are contrasting them in the first place.

The key is to decide which you want to focus on more. You can focus on comparison but include some contrast. You can focus on contrast but include some comparisons. Or you can try to balance the two evenly.

One very effective method of determining what is different and the same between two things is to create a chart. On one side of the chart, list the items being compared. On the other axis, list what factors you want to use to compare them. These factors that you are focusing on are your points of comparison.

Then, carefully analyze each item and put your results on the chart. Be open to adding more columns as you need to. Once you look at each item in detail, you may discover new important points of comparison.

Chart showing prewriting work for a comparison essay

Any comparison essay can become quite confusing if you don’t pay special attention to the organizational pattern of your writing.

No matter what organizational pattern you use, your introduction should state what you are comparing and why. Your thesis will likely be a statement that either summarizes your findings or makes a recommendation.

In your conclusion, you will want to summarize the comparison, highlighting the most important information.

In business writing, you may want to write an introduction that explains why you are completing a comparison and why you have chosen the points of comparison. Then, you could just provide the chart you created and then finish with a conclusion that summarizes your findings and makes a recommendation.

In academic writing, the two most common organizational patterns are block and point-by-point.

Block structure

In a block approach, there are only two main points. Each then has subpoints made up of the points of comparison.

I. Intro

II. Roman Britain
A. Reason
B. Who
C. Cultural Impact

III. Anglo-Saxon Britain
A. Reason
B. Who
C. Cultural Impact

IV. Conclusion

It is key when using the block approach that the subpoints are in the same order. Once you establish the order in the first main point, follow the same order in the second main point.

One issue with the block approach is that it can lead to summary. In the example above, it would be easy to lose focus while drafting the first main point and start summarizing all kinds of information about Roman Britain.

If you are comparing three or more items, or if you want to build your comparison of the second items from the first, then a block pattern may be best. In the case of the British history essay, there is some merit in discussing Roman Britain in entirety first and then using this as a basis for the information about Anglo-Saxon Britain, as they occurred chronologically.

Point-by-point structure

The point-by-point structure can be very useful because it can help the writer, and reader, stay focused on the comparison.

In the point-by-point model, there are usually three main points, which are the points of comparison. Then, within each main point, there are subpoints, which are the two items being compared.

I. Intro

II. Reason for occupation
A. Roman
B. Anglo-Saxon

III. Who occupied?
A. Roman
B. Anglo-Saxon

IV. Cultural Impact
A. Roman
B. Anglo-Saxon

V. Conclusion

Just as with the block structure, once the internal order of a main point is established, that order should be used for each main point. In our British history example, the most logical internal structure is Roman first and Anglo-Saxon second, mostly because this works chronologically.

If you are making a comparison in which your main argument is to show that one item is better or more effective than the other, then it can be most effective to discuss the item being suggested last within each main point. This puts a bit more emphasis on the second item discussed.

Definition makes-up one of the four key arguments in the classical Greek argumentation approach called stasis theory.

The point of stasis (which means balance) is to ensure that we completely think through an issue. It is a critical thinking process and has four steps that we must complete in order:

Establish the facts. What has happened, or what is happening?

Establish definitions. What is it?

Explore our values: How do we feel about the situation? What do we value?

Propose a solution: What should we do about it?

Definition may seem like a simple thing, but there is more than one way to define something. The type of definition needed depends on the situation, how familiar the reader is with the topic, and how likely they are to agree or disagree.

Formal definition

Formal definitions designate what something is by placing it in a category with other, similar, concepts and then showing how it is different than others in that category.

The definitions that one finds in a dictionary are often formal definitions. We must be adept at using formal definitions, but they often do not make an effective topic for an essay. Formal definitions are often so precise that there is little room for argument. However, if one wants to argue that something is lacking an appropriate definition, or that its former definition is incorrect, then a formal definition may be the best approach.

Stipulative definition

Often concepts have many possible definitions, so we must establish which definition we are using. When this happens, we stipulate our definition by explaining which definition is most appropriate and why.

We may also use a stipulative definition when there is no consensus on a definition, but we would like to move forward with an argument. We can stipulate a definition, noting that it isn’t necessarily one that everyone agrees upon, and then move on in stasis theory to explore our values and even propose a solution. If we can then show that the solution is effective, even if we don’t agree on the definition, then we can stick with that stipulative definition.

For example, on the topic of bike lanes, there are many different definitions of what a bike lane is. Some say that it is a protected space for cyclists to commute in safety. Others may define a bike lane as an expensive and trendy move to satisfy a certain kind of hip, urban, citizen. Someone else may argue that a bike lane is a method of reducing car traffic by making streets too narrow, and therefore too frustrating to drive on. Notice with all of these definitions that it is difficult to define a bike lane without also making arguments of values.

If we designate the first definition of a bike line as our stipulative definition, agreeing that there are many dissenting ideas about this, but that we can adopt a definition to explore the issue more, then we can move forward and discuss values. For example, most people value safety, so, having defined a bike lane as a “protected space for cyclists to commute in safety,” we can explore just how safe a bike lane is for cyclists as well as motorists and pedestrians.

Definition by example

We can show that something fits a definition by giving an example of another specific item or person that fits the definition. For example, if we are trying to define a sports star, then we could use someone like the soccer player Lionel Messi.

One must be very careful when using an example. First, we need to be sure that the reader understands the example given and that they understand the definition enough to understand how the example fits. Example definitions are not effective definitions on their own, but they can be used to support a definition.

Definitions are important. When using definition as an element in a larger essay, you need to think carefully about why you are using a definition and how it needs to be used.

If you need to clarify a term, then a definition from a source may be the route. In this case, be sure to cite a source for the definition.

If there are many possible definitions, or if the definition would be disputed for some reason, then specify a stipulative definition. Recognize that there are other definitions for the concept, but that this is the one you are using and why.

Definition essays

Definition essays tend to follow one of three paths.

The first is a common writing exercise in which the writer is asked to define a broad term, usually in a personal context. The essay is a personal essay, using the writer’s experience as the main source of information. Common topics include things like “Explain what freedom means to you.”

If you are completing such an essay, be sure that you understand the directions. If allowed to, start by stipulating what formal definition you are applying. Cite where you found the definition. The structure should be based on reasons why it means what it does for you. You can pick three examples that illustrate the definition and then mostly use narrative and description to fill out the body of the essay.

The second type of definition essay is often a research essay over a concept that may have many different definitions or for which the definition may be unclear. Our ongoing example of bike lanes could be the topic of such an essay. After all, there is no single definition of what a bike lane is.

In this type of essay, your thesis would also likely include a stipulative definition. Your main points would need to be details that support this claim. Some considerations would include why you have chosen this definition and what the possible effect is of adopting this definition. You will also need plenty of cited source material to support your stance.

The third type of definition research essay may be a report or research summary. For this type of essay, often the formal definition is clear. The point is to provide as much information about that definition as possible.

For example, in nursing, one may need to define what geriatric care is. For this type of report, the thesis would be the formal definition. The body would likely be summary and analysis of the current research on the topic.

As the name implies, structural analysis is the careful dissection of the structure of something. The structural analysis of a drawbridge would be a close examination of all of the key components of the bridge and how they work together. The structural analysis of a painting would identify the composition techniques, materials, brushwork, and style used in the creation of the painting before concluding how effective the overall effect is.

The key, again, is to not just summarize the item being analyzed. A summary explains what something is. An analysis explains how it works.

For example, if analyzing an article, before writing, you would want to take time to identify the thesis or main idea, and the supporting main points of the text. In a summary, this is about where you would stop. However, to complete an analysis you would want to get into more details. Identify how composition techniques are used in creating these elements. Which rhetorical modes are employed? How is style employed?

Once you have done all this, then develop a thesis statement that argues how effective or ineffective the article is. For the body of your analysis, focus on key elements you identified.

Rhetoric is the study of argumentation. Therefore, the first thing that becomes clear about rhetorical analysis is that it can’t really be used for things that are not arguments. An advertisement can be analyzed using rhetoric; a car can’t.

A rhetorical analysis may seem very similar to a structural analysis, because both use, essentially, the same elements of the original text. However, structure is only one element, of a rhetorical analysis. Rhetorical analysis puts special focus on how an argument is argued.

To create a rhetorical analysis, you must have a firm grasp on argumentation.

A critical analysis builds upon a structural analysis to put the text in a larger context.

The word “text” in this case is quite expansive. A text could be any permanent or semi-permanent cultural object. Using this definition, a book is a text, but so is a car, a building, or even a style of dress.

In addition to completing a structural analysis, in prewriting, you should ask yourself how this text fits into a larger cultural scope. For example, a building is a text, as architecture is a product and symbol of culture. So, if you are completing a critical analysis of a building, you must ask yourself how this particular structure fits into a larger cultural concept.

Some general questions you can ask to help you to prepare a critical analysis include:

• What about this text is worthwhile?
• What about this text is useful?
• What about this text is significant?
• Is there anything in the text that seems to be out of place?
• How does this text compare to other, similar, texts of the same era?
• How does the text fit into the current culture?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the text?

Use what you discover while answering these questions to develop a main argument about how the text fits into a cultural framework. Then, choose a few key ideas to support that thesis. One of those will likely be a brief structural analysis.

Often, critical analysis may use a specific theory to help limit the scope of the analysis. A Freudian analysis of an advertisement would be mostly limited to how it affects the audience psychologically. A Feminist critical analysis would examine the same advertisement in the context of how it betrays certain attitudes and power structures related to gender roles.

When developing a critical analysis of literature, there are some specific elements that are important.

First, you must have a solid basic understanding of literary elements. Different types, or genre, of literature have different elements, and the terminology can be quite different.

A structural analysis of literature is not the same as a summary. A summary of a literary text is often frowned-upon, as the literary object is not a synapsis: Its full “meaning” only exists in its full form. A structural analysis is a careful examination of how the elements of the literature work together to create the complete text.

Analyzing narrative

One of the most important steps when analyzing narrative work like fiction, epic poetry, creative non-fiction, or drama, is to take notes over characters, conflicts, setting, and chronological elements (change in time). If it is something short, you can read the text first and then go back and complete these while rereading. If the text is longer, like a novel, you will want to complete these after you read each chapter.

Some particular items you will want to note include:

Setting: When and where is the story set? Is it all one setting or does the location change? How does the setting interact with the rest of the story?

Time: Time is one aspect of setting, but the temporality of narrative is quite important. How much time passes during the story? Are there jumps forward in time as part of the plot in which information is skipped or ignored? Are there flashbacks or flash forwards in which information outside of the temporality (the time constraints) of the plot are revealed?

Theme: What basic ideas are sustained by the story? Does the story seem to be arguing for or against some concept or thought?

Symbolism: How are objects and actions given larger meaning? Be careful with this, as often students of literature have been fooled by years of secondary education to think that everything must be a meaningful symbol. Usually very few concepts in a story are symbolic. In the words attributed to Sigmund Freud (which he likely never actually said) “Sometimes a cigar is just a cigar.”

Character: This goes beyond who’s who, as most fiction is character-based. This includes the motivation for characters (why they feel the way they do) and conflict-- the result when motivations collide, whether that be within a character (internal) or with another character, nature, or society (external).

Word choice and style: All the above is created by language, and the choices authors make when creating the text. Some authors have a very specific style (Hemingway’s terse phrasing or Mary Shelley’s Romantic prose packed with multisyllabic, philosophical, words). Other times, individual works have their own style. The language and punctuation used have an immense effect on the shape of the ideas in the reader’s mind.

What are the structural elements within the story? Narrative often employs a common structure:

Exposition: Background information about character and setting

Rising action: More is learned about the characters. Conflicts are intro duced and developed.

Climax: The main conflict reaches a crisis point.

Falling action: Often we don’t know that the climax has, indeed, happened until after, when tensions created in the rising action are relaxed

Dénouement: The conclusion. Usually, the narrative feels complete.

Your thesis when writing about narrative could be any number of arguments. The main thing is to be specific. A novel, itself, takes a whole book just for the original story. To analyze the entire novel would require at least another book. Use cues in the writing assignment. Your instructor likely wants you to focus on particular elements. One common approach is comparison.

When analyzing literature, the text, itself, is the primary source. Use plenty of cited examples from the text to help illustrate the points you are making.

Analyzing poetry

Poetry is much different than other types of literature. It is often written in verse, which requires its own analysis. Also, aside from epics, poetry rarely creates a narrative. Therefore, characters are often much less developed, if they exist at all. Also, poetry usually doesn’t have a complete narrative structure (unless, again, it is an epic).

When analyzing poetry, pay particular attention to word choice and style. How are images and sensory impressions created? What is the effect?

Also, pay special attention to symbolism. Poetry often employs more symbolism than prose literature, just because the point is often to create an impression on the reader in a shorter package. Be careful with symbolism, though. Not everything is a symbol.