One may be forgiven for thinking that there is little value in learning grammar when there is so much technology that exists to help us fix our written communication. However, these tools are just that: tools. Like any other tool, one must know how to do a job before the tool is effective. Without a solid knowledge of grammar, we can’t know if the changes an app is suggesting are actually correct.
Writing with accuracy is important. The whole point of writing is to communicate, so we must be careful to communicate accurately and effectively.
Correct punctuation helps the reader understand what is written.
Written languages largely did not have punctuation early in their development. Some used line breaks to signal the end of a thought, but otherwise, the reader would need to know the context in order to understand what was written.
As written languages developed, punctuation was added in order to make writing more precise. In this same way, the “rules” for punctuation have developed over time, with changes happening with changes in print technology, such as newspaper presses and typewriters and even newer concepts such as texting.
We must use proper punctuation and proofread our writing closely so that meaning is clear. While some people may seem to “get” punctuation easier than others, there is no substitute for careful editing and proofreading.
Many specific style guides, including academic guides such as MLA and APA, have specific rules regarding punctuation. If you are using an academic style, see the appropriate section in this handbook or the official handbook for that style for specific details.
The period, or full stop, is most often used to designate the end of a declarative sentence.
The children played in the park.
Abbreviations and initials
A period is used at the end of abbreviations, including shortened words, and initials.
Mr. Smith did not care for the racket coming from the alley.
8 Oct. 2025 (note this is MLA style for a date)
The Organization of Collected Groups (O.C.G.) had its first meeting last week.
It is not used for common abbreviations.
The rocket was developed last year by NASA engineers.
If a sentence ends in an abbreviation, do not double-up the period.
Sarah Michelle Gellar is married to Freddie Prinze Jr.
A question mark is used as end punctuation for a question.
Have you seen my jacket?
Do not use a question mark if the question is implied.
I found myself wondering where all the birds had gone.
An exclamation mark is used as end punctuation for an extreme or surprising statement.
That is a lie!
In formal writing, exclamation marks are used very rarely.
A comma is used to indicate a short pause or the break between phrases.
A comma is also used after an introductory word or phrase.
Alas, we never saw him again.
In the wee hours of morning, the moon slowly slid from view.
After a quick jog, we moved to the weight room to complete our work out.
One may omit a comma after an introductory phrase, especially if the phrase is short, and the sentence reads well without it. However, it is usually a good idea to include the comma if you are uncertain.
With a coordinating conjunction
When combining independent clauses (clauses that could each stand on their own as a sentence), a comma is used along with a coordinating conjunction.
The day was long, and the night was cold.
I have never been to Greece, but I have seen the musical Grease.
It is possible to omit the comma when joining independent clauses, especially if one of the clauses is brief.
I went and then I came back again.
Items in a list
When items are combined in a series, a comma is used to separate the items for clarity.
His pants, shirt, and jacket were all soaking wet.
Some common skills in carpentry include sawing boards, nailing pieces, and planing uneven surfaces.
Note that the comma before conjunction is a particular style choice, often called an Oxford comma. Most academic styles use the Oxford comma, but it is not always preferred in all styles, including some newswriting guides.
Nonessential phrase or clause
If a sentence includes a phrase that helps to add information or context, but the sentence would still make sense without it, this is called a nonessential phrase or clause. Nonessential phrases are set off with commas.
His car, which was red, was a common sight around town.
In addition, use commas if information interrupts the flow of a sentence if it really isn’t essential to the sentence.
The head of the Mississippi river, which drains almost all of the middle of the United States, is a little lake in Minnesota called Lake Itasca.
What we should do with all of these extra lemons, if you ask me, is make some tasty lemonade.
Quotations and attribution
Use a comma to separate information that introduces a quotation or provides the source. Notice that if the quotation is a sentence followed by the attribution, a comma is used at the end of the quote, not a period. The period goes at the end of the full sentence.
“I’ve never seen so many bats before,” George said.
Then he added, “I had no idea there were so many vampires in Transylvania.”
“If you ask me,” Marg interjected, “we should just leave.”
Special uses
Commas are often used to separate parts of an address or date.
Shermer, Illinois is a fictional location used in many John Hughes films.
13 October, 2025
Many style guides have specific guidelines for punctuation of dates, so be sure to check how to handle the date in the specific style you are using.
The semicolon is often cited by English instructors as one of the most misunderstood punctuation marks. It is a handy mark, but its usage is quite specific.
A semicolon serves as a conjunction of two independent clauses. If each clause could stand alone as a separate sentence, but you wish to join them in order to stress the relationship, use a semicolon.
He got up early every morning; this morning was different.
Be careful not to overuse semicolons to join clauses. The effect can be overdone.
If the independent clauses are joined using a conjunction like “but,” or “and,” then use a comma instead of a semicolon.
His coffee was cold, but he drank it anyway.
Items in a list
Semicolons are also used to separate items in a list if there are commas used within an element in the list.
There were five people going: Phil, the driver; John; Janet; Debra; and Mark.
If the sentence becomes difficult to understand when using semicolons in a list, revise the sentence.
A colon is used before a clause of phrase that elaborates or explains what comes before it.
He loaded up on kolache: an Eastern European pastry common in the rural Midwest.
If the clause after the colon could be a complete sentence, capitalize the first word after the colon. Note that the second clause describes what comes before, hence a colon is used instead of a semicolon.
The plan would never work: It was just completely underfunded.
The usage of a colon is very common in titles, especially in academic work. In a title, the first word after a colon is capitalized, even if it is a “small” word.
Literary Criticism: An Introduction
Special usage
Use a colon, also, as special punctuation in business writing as well as in certain numerical values and dates.
Dear Doctor Johnson:
Mix the chemicals in a 5:1 ratio.
The train was supposed to arrive at 6:50.
A dash can be used instead of a comma or semicolon to set apart information, especially if there is a shift in tone.
The true name of a dash is an “em dash” because it is wider than the dash used in a hyphen (also known as an “en dash”). In the typesets used by professional printers, an em dash is usually as wide as a capital M, while an en dash is the width of a capital N.
To create a dash in Microsoft Word, type two hyphens with no space between. In other word processing programs, one may need to insert a special character to insert an em dash.
It was a bright and beautiful day—Until Betty showed up with a grin that meant that she had gossip to spread.
Use dashes sparingly. Like any special punctuation, the effect is lost when overdone.
A hyphen, or en dash, is used join words in order to make their meaning clear.
Use a hyphen to combine adjectives.
The much-loved teddy bear was looking thin.
The extra-large shirt was too big on Megan.
Do not use a hyphen to combine adverbs and adjectives.
His overly needy aunt was starting to cause problems.
Numbers
Use a hyphen for numbers that take more than one word to express. Note that different academic styles have different rules for large numbers, so consult the specific style guide necessary.
Seventy-five users had issues with the software.
Use a hyphen when expressing common fractions.
One-half of his income came from cryptocurrency.
Line breaks
In business and newswriting, a hyphen is often used to break up a long word at the end of a line to save room and make the right side of the text look nicer. This handbook uses hyphens to break some long words at the end of lines.
When this is done, one should break the word at a natural syllable break. Academic styles tend not to use hyphens for this purpose and allow the long word to just move to the next line.
Quotation marks are used to set-off word-for-word material from a source.
The Declaration of Independence famously notes that everyone has certain rights, including “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”
In American English, end punctuation like periods, question marks, and exclamation marks, tends to go inside quotation marks.
“All I know,” Mary shouted, “Is this has to be the ugliest dog I have ever seen!”
If quotation marks must be used within quotation marks, use double quotes for the larger quotation and single quotes (apostrophes) around the shorter quotation.
Bill shared that “My father, when frustrated, used to say the phrase ‘When in the course of human events,’ which always confused me as a child.”
Titles
Quotation marks are also often used to punctuate titles of short works like articles. Academic writing styles like APA and MLA have very different guidelines regarding punctuation of titles. See the appropriate sections on these styles for details.
“Altman Goes on World Tour in Dash for Funds.”
Sarcasm
Use quotation marks to highlight sarcastic comments or unusual usage of a word or phrase. In formal writing, such usages are rare, so use them carefully.
John said that he needed to “talk to the boss,” before he could make a decision.
Do not use quotation marks to highlight important words or phrases. Unnecessary usage of quotation marks can cause confusion.
Do not use the “pool” when a “lifeguard” is not present.
Use parentheses (called brackets in British English) to mark extra information that is interesting, but not necessary, in a sentence.
He stubbed his toe on the coffee table (a horrible fake wood thing from Ikea) and fell in the dark.
Avoid overusing parenthetical statements, as they can cause confusion and make your writing overly complex.
In academic writing, parentheses are used to mark in-text citation information. Consult the appropriate section for specific citation guidelines.
According to an article from The Conversation, even when we know that AI created content is not real and being used for persuasive pur poses, it still affects how we think about the world (Nemeroff).
Sentence case
The first letter of the first word of a sentence should be capitalized. This is commonly called sentence case capitalization.
Under the spell of the magical dragon, the knight had no idea that he was falling into a trap.
Title case
Capitalize the first letter of all of the major words in a title. Do not capitalize small conjunctions (a, the) or short prepositions (in, on) unless they are the first word of a title or appear after a colon. This is often called title case.
The Decameron
“What Is AI Slop? A Technologist Explains This New and Largely Unwelcome Form of Online Content.”
“‘Fight Story with Story’: Counterstory as Resilient Futurity.”
Specific academic styles, such as APA and MLA, have specific guidelines for titles. See the appropriate section for more information.
Proper nouns
Use title case capitalization for names and proper nouns.
Wilson Public Schools has bus service available for all students.
Jay Jackson was recognized as the top salesperson last month.
Do not capitalize common nouns.
The high school was rebuilt four years ago.
Professional titles
Capitalize professional titles.
Doctor Johnson has had a long career in obstetrics.
Chairperson Wilson was the only dissenting vote.
Italics are commonly used for titles of complete works like books and publications. Different academic styles have different guidelines for punctuating titles. See the proper section for specific information.
The Critical Tradition: Classic Texts and Contemporary Trends.
Unusual words or emphasis
Italics can be used to set off unusual usage of words or to emphasize information. This is usually more formal than using quotation marks to highlight such information.
It is common when analyzing an issue to fall victim to outcome bias and ignore the quality of the decision in favor of the eventual result.
Foreign words
Use italics for non-English words that are not commonly used.
My funk later devolved into a particular désespoir.
The apostrophe mark has many uses, but the most common is to change a noun into a possessive noun.
Possessives
For singular nouns, make the word possessive by adding an apostrophe and an “s.”
Mark’s motorcycle fell off the trailer with a crash.
A duck’s feet are webbed, and so are a Labrador Retriever’s.
The crowd at the hockey game always cheers when Kiss’s song “Rock and Roll All Night” is played.
To make a plural noun that does not end in “s” possessive, add an apostrophe and an “s.”
Women’s rights were a major factor in changing ideas about the workforce in the late twentieth century.
To make a plural noun that ends in an “s” possessive, only add an apostrophe.
The Johnsons’ mailbox was vandalized last night.
Do not use an apostrophe to mark the possessive of the pronoun “it,” as this could be confused with the contraction for “it is.” Just add an “s.”
The dog was whining because it had lost its bone.
When possession is shared by two or more individuals, then only use an apostrophe for the last individual in the list.
Pat and Jay’s tractor never ran quite right after the flood.
If each party in the statement has separate possession of similar items, then form a possessive for both.
Jerry’s and Cash’s cars are both Pontiacs.
Plurals
In general, one does not use an apostrophe to make a word plural. There are instances when you should use an apostrophe for pluralization, however.
If you are making a plural of lower-case letters, use an apostrophe.
There are three p’s in “hippopotamus.”
Do not use an appostrophe for plurals of numbers. Only use an appostrophe for a possesive usage of number.
In the late 1970s, hardcore and disco fought for shared space in New York. The 1980’s shift to hiphop was in many ways a melding of these two.
Contractions
Use an apostrophe to mark where letters have been removed to form a contraction.
I haven’t the slightest idea how this chapter will end.
It’s always a good idea to treat others with respect.
Be careful with using contractions, as most formal writing avoids over usage.
Poor structure can lead to confusion. Also, in formal writing, proper structure conveys that the writer cares about the project. Sentence-level editing is a painstaking process that requires exact individual attention to everything. Shortcuts are often not an option
A complete sentence contains a subject and a verb. This can be simple.
Gerald quit.
Or, this can be quite complex.
After much consideration, Gerald (for his name, was, indeed, Gerald) concluded that the time had come to cease his efforts and just quit, as this was the only resolution possible.
Note that the second example has a lot of things going on, style-wise, but it still has a subject (Gerald) and a verb (concluded). Everything else is extra and serves to add detail to the sentence. The example sentence above would not work very well in most formal writing. However, in a creative writing class, it would be sure to wow people over if that was the point.
Subjects can be nouns, pronouns, or noun phrases.
Sue must be careful when riding the bus to watch for her stop.
One must be careful when using public transportation to watch for their stop.
Riders of public transport must be careful to watch for their stop.
In English, there is a subject called the “understood you” where the sentence is written with a directive (or command). While the subject is not written in the sentence, it is understood that it is a second-person, or “you,” pronoun.
Get the door before the mail carrier leaves.
In this example, the subject is an understood you, and it means ‘you’ get the door.
Prepositional phrases
Prepositional phrases modify other clauses and phrases, usually by identifying a location or condition. The subject of a sentence cannot be included within a prepositional phrase.
In a cabin in the valley among the hills in the land in which I was born.
This may seem like a complete sentence. It is quite lengthy. The writer has started with a capital letter and put a period at the end. Also, there is a pronoun (“I”) and a verb “was born.” However, these are included in the prepositional phrase “in which I was born.” This is a series of prepositional phrases and not a complete sentence. To be complete, this entry would need a clear subject and verb.
In a cabin in the valley among the hills in the land in which I was born, I left my family to find my fortunes in life.
An example given earlier has a noun phrase as a subject.
Riders of public transport must be careful to watch for their stop.
Notice that there is a prepositional phrase (“of public transport”) in this noun phrase that services as the subject. However, the noun (“riders”) is not within that prepositional phrase. If the prepositional phrase is omitted, the noun “riders” would be the simple subject and the sentence would still make sense.
If a phrase can be omitted and the sentence would still make sense, then it is not the subject.
Gerund phrases
A gerund is verb, usually ending in –ing, that is used as a noun.
Running is a great sport for middle-aged people.
Running up the hill.
In the first example, the subject of the sentence is the gerund “running.” In the second example, “running” is a verb. “Up the hill” is a prepositional phrase. There is no subject in the second example, and it is an incomplete sentence.
The horse was running up the hill.
In this sentence, the subject is the horse and the verb is the helper “was” and “running.” However, in this case, because “running” is a verb, it is not a gerund.
A gerund phrase, then, is a phrase which includes a gerund. A gerund, again, is an –ing word that is commonly used as a verb but is serving as a noun.
A gerund phrase can be used as the subject.
Running up the hill gave Georgiana a stitch in her side.
In this example, the gerund phrase “running up the hill” is the complete subject. The verb is “gave.”
It is best when editing to take a close look at any sentences that contain an “–ing” word. You must be very careful to ascertain how the word is being used in the sentence and if the sentence is complete.
We must be careful that sentences are easy for the reader to understand. A run-on sentence is one in which independent clauses, which could easily exist as separate sentences, are attached together into one massive sentence.
There are two types of run-on sentences: fused sentences and comma splices.
Fused sentences occur when separate independent clauses, or subject/verb sentences, are pushed together without punctuation.
Comma splices are where separate independent clauses, or subject/verb sentences, are pushed together with a comma between them.
The effect of run-on sentences is that they can be unnecessarily wordy and difficult for the reader to understand.
Even though the weather forecast predicted sunny, warm weather, the clouds quickly spread across the sky the rain started falling, and the derecho quickly affected the town.
In this entry, there is a fused sentence after “sky.” This should be two separate sentences. The easiest way to fix this entry is to put a period after the word sky.
Even though the weather forecast predicted sunny, warm weather, the clouds quickly spread across the sky. The rain started falling, and the derecho quickly affected the town.
Run-on sentences caused by comma splices can also be quite difficult to read.
These directions are quite confusing:
After attaching the cable to the corresponding input on the stereo, then connect the cable to the peripheral device, however, be sure that the power is turned off on both devices, otherwise either may be damaged while connecting.
We can fix this by editing the comma splices:
Attach the cable to the corresponding input on the stereo. Then, connect the cable to the peripheral device. Be sure that the power is turned off on both devices; otherwise, either may be damaged while connecting.
In this entry, the problems from above have been corrected. The first comma splice is eliminated by creating two separate sentences. The second comma splice has been fixed by adding the semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after the conjunctive adverb.
One effective method to edit sentences is to read the sentence out loud. If you have to stop in the middle to take a breath, it is likely a run-on sentence.
Correcting run-on sentences
There are multiple ways to correct run-on sentences so that they are complete sentences. Writing should include varied sentence structures to make reading more interesting.
Possible sentence structures include simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences. No matter how long the sentence, an independent clause (IC) must be present.
An independent clause (IC) has a subject and a verb. A dependent clause (DC) also has a subject and verb; however, a dependent clause does not have the main subject and verb of the sentence because it starts with a subordinating conjunction, or a word that starts the dependent clause.
Common subordinating conjunctions are: Even though, Though, Since, Because, While, When, Unless, and If.
When there is a subject/verb entry with a subordinating conjunction before it, that is a dependent clause, which means it is not a full sentence. An independent clause is like a grown adult. A grown adult can choose to go wherever and whenever without help. A dependent clause is like a toddler. A toddler must have help doing things and must be attached to an adult.
Simple sentence structure
A simple sentence is a basic subject/verb entry. It may have adjectives, adverbs, direct and/or indirect objects completing the action of the verb, or prepositional phrases as well. It is called a simple sentence because it only has one subject/verb point in the string of words.
IC. IC.
One of the most basic ways of fixing a run-on sentence is to use the period between the two independent clauses (IC).
Incorrect: Omar went to bed early, he was tired.
Correct: Omar went to bed early. He was tired.
Compound sentence structure
A compound sentence is two independent clauses joined together with correct punctuation.
IC, cc IC.
A run-on sentence can also be fixed using the IC, cc IC structure where a comma is placed before the coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) with a new subject/verb after the coordinating conjunction. The coordinating conjunction makes linking together the two separate independent clauses must make logical sense.
He knew the order, but he forgot it later.
This sentence is two independent clauses joined with a conjunction. Separately, they would both be short and choppy, so joining them with the conjunction “but” is helpful.
IC; ca, IC.
A run-on sentence may also be fixed using a conjunctive adverb (ca) between the two independent clause entries. Common conjunctive adverbs include: however, therefore, additionally, consequently, and subsequently. Again, the only rule is that the conjunctive adverb makes sense as a word transitioning between the two sentences.
He knew the order; however, he forgot it later.
Complex sentence structures
DC, IC.
Dependent clauses (DC) contain a subject and verb, but they cannot stand on their own, usually because they are linked to an independent clause with a subordinating conjunction. A subordinating conjunction is a word or phrase that indicates that one clause informs about the other clause.
This may seem horribly complicated, but it is easier to see it in use.
Because he was so tired, Omar went to bed early.
Notice in the sentence above, that “he was so tired” could stand on its own as a sentence. It has the pronoun “he” and the verb “was.” However, the subordinating conjunction “because” makes the phrase a dependent clause: it describes the IC “Omar went to be early.”
IC DC.
There is really no reason why the dependent clause should come before or after the independent clause, as long as the sentence makes sense. However, if the DC comes after the IC, and they are linked by a subordinating conjunction, you do not put a comma between them.
Omar went to bed early because he was so tired.
I, DC, C
An independent clause can be split by a dependent clause.
Omar, because he was so tired, went to bed early.
I DC C
If the dependent clause is necessary information, then do not use commas.
The server who forgot the order returned.
In English, subjects and verbs within a sentence must agree in point of view (person) and number (singular or plural).
Some verbs in English change depending on the point of view of the sentence.
I/you stand. He/she/it stands.
Verbs often also change depending on the number of the subject.
We/they stand. Anyone stands.
Bill stands on the left side of the street. Julie stands in front of her house. When together, they stand in the shade.
Compound subject
When a clause or phrase is used as the subject, then the verb must agree. Usually this will require a plural verb.
Going to the store and washing the car are how I like to spend my Saturdays.
If the compound subject includes the conjunction “or” or “nor,” then the verb should be singular.
Neither Enrique nor Abdul noticed the cat walking through the room.
Collective nouns
Many nouns in English refer to a collection of individuals, but they operate as a singular group.
The board discusses all business in public meetings.
Indefinite pronouns
Some pronouns don’t refer to any specific antecedent (the noun or subject a pronoun represents). Some indefinite pronouns may need to agree with a singular verb, a plural verb, or the agreement may depend on other factors, such as an object of a preposition.
Indefinite pronouns
| Singular | Plural | Singular or plural, depending on the context |
|---|---|---|
| anybody, anyone, anything, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, one, nothing, somebody, someone, something, each, either, much, neither | both, few, many, several, others | all, any, more, none, some |
Subject and verb seperated
One common issue with subject/verb agreement is when there are other words, such as prepositional phrases, that separate the subject from the verb. We must be careful to correctly identify the subject and the verb in order to ensure that the sentence is grammatically correct.
The colors available for a new car vary depending on the model.
The old house, sitting among a grove of old trees, many of which have turned white with rot, feels eerie in the moonlight.
Verbs change with a change in tense. Tense is when something happens and how long it takes.
Simple tense
Simple past, present, future tense are the easiest to use.
Jo washed the dog last week.
Min-jun plays guitar with his band on the weekends.
Maya will cover my shift tomorrow.
Perfect tense
Use past perfect tense for actions that occurred in the past and were concluded before another action took place in the past.
Perfect tense adds the helping verbs has, have, or had to the main verb.
Mary had been to the store before she got a text from Luisa that they were out of butter.
Marvin had danced but never like he did at Louisa’s party.
Use present perfect for actions that have happened in the past but have anuncertain starting moment or actions that have started in the past and continue in the preset.
My dog, Jenson, has been very naughty lately.
Jill has talked to many people who think that the homeowner’s association has too much power.
Use future perfect tense for actions that will be completed at a specific moment in the future.
By the time the new office building is done, I will have been retired for a couple of years.
Irving will have biked four hundred miles by the end of the summer.
Progressive tense
Progressive tense is used to indicate continuing action. The progressive form is created by adding the irregular verb form “to be” to an “-ing” verb. “To be” in English is irregular because it changes forms differently than other verbs. “To be” verbs include: is, are, was, and were
Present progressive:
Navya is waiting until Tuesday to sign up for the exam.
It may take a lot of work, but Santiago and Philip are expecting a good result.
Present perfect progressive:
Given the current economy, I have been considering just burying my money in a jar in the backyard.
Someone has been asking a lot of questions about that new guy in the office.
Past progressive:
Raj was riding his mountain bike when an elk jumped in front of him.
It was bright and sunny, and we were hoping the weather would last all day.
Past perfect progressive:
Carlos had been hoping for a better grade.
Even though it was late, I had been grading for a very long time.
Future progressive:
They will be depending upon a lucky break if their lead runner doesn’t finish in the top three.
Antoine will be driving in the Grand Prix next year.
Future perfect progressive:
I will have been busking on this corner for a year next week, and all I have to show for it is $135 in tips and a coupon for frozen yogurt.
Pronouns are words that operate like a noun or noun phrase but are not specific. Pronouns must have a clear antecedent: the noun or noun phrase that the pronoun is representing.
The car was clearly wrecked. Gwen had never seen it in such a state.
Helena and Josephine had never been to a carnival. They found it to be thrilling.
Going to the beach is Fredrick’s favorite summer activity. It takes up most of his time.
Pronouns and gender
Pronouns must match their antecedents in gender.
Only use “he” or “she” as singular pronouns when you are referring to a specific person and know the person’s gender for sure.
You can use “they” as a singular non-gendered form.
If the new manager starts next week, they will need to be brought up to date on the plans for the roll-out of the new product line.
“One” is also an effective non-gendered pronoun. “One” is indefinite: it doesn’t need a clear antecedent.
One should watch traffic carefully during rush hour.
Only use “it” for non-human things.
I didn’t mind that the neighbor’s dog would play in our yard, but then it started to dig holes.
When the machine fell apart, it made a horrible sound.
Pronouns and number
Pronouns must also match their antecedents in number. Plural pronouns are used for plural subjects. Singular pronouns refer to singular subjects.
Jerry gave his jacket to Anna because she was cold. They had been walking in the park until quite late.
Subject and object pronouns
Some pronouns are only used as either the subject or object in a sentence.
Subject pronouns always work as subjects in a sentence or clause. An object pronoun can be an object of a preposition, a direct object, which completes the action of the verb, or an indirect object, which explains to whom the action of the verb is being completed.
Subject pronouns include I, he, she, we, who, and they. Object pronouns include me, him, her, us, whom, and them.
I own a car. It was given to me by my grandfather.
Notice in the example above, “I” is the subject of the sentence. The verb is “own.” In the second sentence, “me” is the object of the preposition “to.”
If you have any problems, just ask him or me.
“Who” and “whom” are pronouns that are often confused. Quite often, people use “whom” when they are trying to be proper or fancy, but “whom” is just the object that matches with the subject “who.”
Who left all these toy cars on the floor?
I can fill in the rest of the form after you finish adding to whom it should be addressed.
Grammatical elements in a sentence must have similar grammatical constructions. This can be especially difficult when items are in a list or combined using a conjunction.
Incorrect parallelism:
To learn, meeting new friends, and have fun are our main goals at Happy Time Preschool.
Correct parallelism:
Learning, meeting new friends, and having fun are our main goals at Happy Time Preschool.
Incorrect parallelism:
Employees of the records department must file items carefully, have quick response times to queries, locate resources accurately, and greet patrons with a smile.
Correct parallelism:
Employees of the records department must be careful with filing, quick when responding to queries, accurate in source location, and pleasant when greeting patrons.
Incorrect parallelism:
For lunch, I usually like a sandwich or grab a pizza.
Correct parallelism:
For lunch, I usually make a sandwich or grab a pizza.
Often, effective writing requires us to code switch: to change how we are communicating depending upon a situation. We don’t communicate the same way when talking to our friends as we do when talking to our boss and we don’t write the same way in formal situations like business or academics as we do in other situations.
In academic and business writing, precision is extremely important, but so is clarity. Often, it may seem like the point is to use lots of big words to impress the reader. Sometimes, “big words” may be necessary to convey the correct meaning. However, the point of any communication should not be to impress the reader but to build an understanding with the reader.
An effective guide to writing, overall, is that the easiest thing for a reader to do is to stop reading, so avoid giving them any reason to pause and wonder what you mean.
Academic organizations like the Modern Language Association (MLA) and American Psychological Association (APA) have their own rules of style. For specific rules, see the appropriate section in this handbook or the official handbook for that style.
However, there are some overall guidelines that one should follow. For every rule, there is an exception. Once you know the rules of style, you can make a conscious decision to break them when needed. In the end, clear writing is the key.
Don’t use a large word when a short word will do
In academic and business writing, precision is extremely important, but so is clarity. Often, it may seem like the point is to use lots of big words in order to impress the reader. Sometimes, “big words” may be necessary to convey the correct meaning. However, the point of any communication should not be to impress the reader but to build an understanding with the reader.
If a short word means the same thing, then use it.
Harry often elaborates his oratory with loquacious verbiage.
Harry talks a lot and uses big words.
Use correct terminology to prevent confusion
There are instances in which we may need to use larger words to portray the intended meaning accurately.
The user must grasp the lever firmly, or it may jiggle loose.
It seems like the lever is an annoyance.
The user must grasp the lever firmly to avoid catastrophic disengagement.
In this sentence, it is clear that if the lever moves, then something is getting destroyed.
Use figurative language carefully
Figurative language uses comparisons that are not meant to be literal in order to convey a deeper or more nuanced meaning.
Simile makes a comparison to something else and usually includes the words “like” or “as.”
Almost all summer long, Ania spent her days in her family’s backyard pool like a fairytale princess, resting on her inflatable rubber ducky.
Metaphor also makes a comparison, but it lacks guiding words to make clear that it is a comparison. The “feeling” of metaphor is that the example actually is the term or concept being explained.
The ducky was a comforting friend as the breeze moved them gently in a great arch around the pool’s perimeter.
Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration to make a point.
The inflatable duck was a monstrous thing, looming over the pool.
An allusion is a reference to a person, work of literature or art, or event. The reader must be familiar with the reference for the allusion to make any sense.
The giant yellow ducky dominated the whole pool: a titan of old come to reside in a suburban backyard.
Personification is adding human attributes to something that is not human.
The inflatable duck wrapped its rubbery wings around Ania and gave her a big hug.
An Idiom is a phrase that is commonly used to explain or express some other idea. Idioms can be difficult to convey because language changes culturally, and it can be difficult to know for sure that the reader is familiar with the idiom.
Ania’s inflatable duck gave up the ghost one stormy day when it blew out of the pool and into a rose bush, which ripped the poor ducky to shreds.
The main problem with all idioms is that they require a heightened cultural knowledge shared by both the reader and the writer. Most formal writing avoids idioms. If you really feel like one is appropriate, be careful and thoughtful about how it is used.
Avoid complex constructions when possible
Long, complex sentences often seem like they mean more. However, they often just muddle meaning or replace meaning with style.
In the days of my youth, as I grew among the rolling hills pastoral, it came to pass that a knowledge of the peculiar scent of bovine waste permeated my existence.
I didn’t realize at first that it always smelled like cow dung because I grew up in a rural area.
As a subset of this guideline, avoid passive constructions.
The car was struck by a large hailstone.
A large hailstone struck the car.
Notice that most of the time the simpler construction is not only shorter but is more to the point.
Avoid repeated phrases and tag words
When we speak, we tend to include many tag words. Also, we may repeat phrases without noticing them. In writing, we must avoid these issues.
So, this is how the practice works.
This is how the practice works
In the event of a fire, move to the nearest exit. In the event that the nearest exit is blocked, redirect to another exit.
In the event of a fire, move to the nearest exit. If the nearest exit is blocked, redirect to another exit.
Overall, avoid vague or unnecessary language.
Avoid starting sentences with expletives
Expletives are introductory forms that are common in English but are often overused. They take the form of the words “there” or “it” plus a form of the irregular verb “to be.” A sentence that starts with an expletive can often be rewritten in a more direct fashion.
It is common in some rural areas for a child to not see a stranger for months.
A child in some rural areas may not see a stranger for months.
There are many uses for a claw hammer, but it is designed to drive small nails.
Although it has many uses, a claw hammer is designed to drive small nails.
For any writer, there are many common words that are easily mistaken. If English is not a writer’s first language, this can be even more challenging.
Spellcheckers and generative AI programs may seem to be helpful. However, they often suggest an incorrect word. This is especially common if the words are the same part of speech.
For more information, including words not listed below, consult a quality dictionary.
Words that seem similar but have different meanings
Some words are easily confused because they appear to be similar when they are not. We must be very careful when using these words to be sure that we are using the correct words and spelling them correctly.
Accept/except: “Accept” is to agree to receive something. The preposition “except” means something, or someone, is excluded.
I will only accept his offer if he adds ten percent.
We were all there, except Tania, who was away at camp.
Affect/effect: “Affect” is generally a verb that is a change in something. “Effect” is a noun signifying a change. Also, “affect” can be used as a noun for a specific change in thought process, especially one that can be noted through an action or response. When “affect” is used this way and pronounced aloud, the emphasis is on the first syllable.
The medication had no effect.
As much as they tried, the boys could not affect the outcome of the game.
His affect was quite serious after reading the letter from home.
Defiantly/definitely. “Defiantly” is an adverb that describes an action being done in a manner that resists expectations. The adverb “definitely” means doing something with the expectation that it will be accomplished. Often, students don’t confuse these words as much as misspell one so poorly that an app will suggest the other.
He defiantly parked his car in an accessible parking spot, assuming that he would not be ticketed.
The garage staff would definitely have his vehicle towed if it didn’t have an accessible parking tag.
Farther/further: “Farther” is an increase in distance. “Further” is an increase in degree.
Tina said that if she ran any farther, she would need a break.
To discuss the policy further, we will need to meet with the board.
Lose/loose/loss: To “lose” something is to misplace it. “Loose” is an adjective meaning slack, or extra. “Loss” is a noun for something which has been lost.
I have a hole in my pocket, so I tend to lose any loose change.
The company’s stock took such a loss that it triggered a massive sell- off.
Or/nor: “Or” is exclusive. When used in a list, it means that only one item applies. “Nor” is inclusive, however, it is negative. It often appears in a sentence that includes “neither,” but any negation may apply.
To attend the conference, you must talk to your instructor or sign-up online.
Either give me a hand or leave me alone.
Employees will neither eat nor drink in the lab.
I will not be in class on Wednesday nor on Friday.
Homophones
Homophones are a subset of homonyms. Homonyms are similar words. Homophones sound similar but are different words and are spelled differently. This is what makes them particularly challenging, as one can misspell a word and get a completely different meaning.
Because English is a complex language born of many different languages, homophones are a common issue. The following is not a definitive list, but these are some common homophones.
Ad: Common abbreviation for “advertisement”
Add: A mathematical function
Bored: Nothing to do or past tense of the verb “bore”
Board: A flat piece of lumber or a group of people who oversee something
Bologna: Italian lunchmeat in American English
Boloney: Scottish word for nonsense
Canvas: Heavy cloth, often used as a tarpaulin
Canvass: To spread out and search
Capital: The main part of something
Capitol: A government building
Coarse: Rough or vulgar
Course: A class or a path
Colonel: Military rank
Kernel: Small chunk of something, like grain
Complement: Something that completes the whole
Compliment: Stated praise
Creak: To squeak
Creek: A stream
Cells: Holes, cubbies, or small rooms
Sells: Makes a trade for money
Fair: Good, or a gathering for fun
Fare: The cost of something
Forth: Forward
Fourth: After the third but before the fifth
Foul: A bad play or a bad smell
Fowl: Birds, especially ones you can eat
Gorilla: A big ape
Guerilla: A surprise attack
Hare: A bunny
Hair: Protein strands on a mammal
Hear: Listen
Here: A particular place
Idle: Not doing anything
Idol: A hero or a statue: Either way it is admired.
It’s: A contraction of “it is”
Its: A possessive pronoun
Jam: Delicious fruit spread or spontaneous music
Jamb: A hard knock or a tight spot
Laps: Multiple trips around a track or how a dog drinks in the present tense
Lapse: To stop
Morning: Before noon
Mourning: Sad time
Principal: The main part of something or the highest ranked thing
Principle: An ideology
Profit: Make some money
Prophet: One who tells the future
Sale: A discount or a transaction
Sail: A cloth that propels a boat
Tail: Appendage on the rear of an animal
Tale: A story
Vial: A small bottle
Vile: Disgusting
Vice: A class of crimes
Vise: A large clamp
Wait: Pause for something to happen
Weight: Mass times gravity
Yoke: A large harness for a draft animal
Yolk: Middle of an egg
In our writing, we need to be clear and easily understood. We also need to connect with the reader. Therefore, it is important to choose words and phrases that do not alienate the audience.
Writers in any era have needed to be aware of the culture norms of society. These expectations for behavior, including the language that we use, change over time as cultures change.
Inclusive language is not the same as “political correctness.” Political correctness often uses vague wording with the goal of making language less precise. Inclusivity is about being precise in a way that doesn’t exclude people.
The inclusive “they”
Many languages have gendered forms that one must learn in order to use the language. English has very few rules of gender and most of these center around noun/pronoun agreement.
If you know the gender of a person, then you should use the appropriate gendered singular pronoun (he, him, his, or she, her, hers). However, do not assume that you know somebody’s gender.
If you do not know the gender of the subject, or if it doesn’t matter, then use “they” pronouns (they, them, their, theirs).
Benjamin said that he would work the closing shift.
The interview for the new dean will be tomorrow, as long as they can make it.
Portnoy claims that their research shows a much different relationship than previous studies.
Another commonly overlooked pronoun that is very useful is the singular third person “one.”
One must first dissolve the solids before adding more liquid to the beaker.
If the use of a pronoun causes confusion, then be specific and use a noun.
All but one of the students attended the first day of class. They later contacted the instructor.
All but one of the students attended the first day of class. The student later contacted the instructor.
Avoid singling out
Overall, it is best to avoid any identification of gender, race, class, or other cultural information unless necessary to the context. People like to be recognized for who they are, not how they appear or by a difference in ability.
Doing so often also makes writing more precise by omitting unnecessary identification.
The lecture hall needs a new handicapped ramp and door for handicapped access.
The lecture hall needs a new ramp and door for improved access.
Notice in this example, that it’s not like a person who would be having this communication wouldn’t know what ramps are for at a building. Also, other people use ramps for access as well. “Accessible” is accessible to everyone.
The college needs a space on forms to indicate if a transgender student goes by a different name.
The college needs a space on forms to indicate if a student uses a different name.
It isn’t just transgender students who may go by something other than their legal name.
Avoid assuming people’s family background.
Each child should have their mom sign the release form.
Each child should have their guardian sign the release form.
Or, a common fix that isn’t very formal, but gets the point across:
Each child should have their adult sign the release form.
In academic writing, we rarely use titles for people, especially gendered ones. In business writing, one may need to use personal titles. If possible, use one’s professional title unless you know for sure that they prefer a personal title like Mr., Mrs., or Ms. “Miss” is archaic and no longer used as a title in formal writing.
It would be best if Director Johnson and Supervisor Smith could meet with the team to discuss the changes.
Also, avoid identifying race or ethnicity unless it is necessary. If mentioning race or ethnicity is necessary, ask a person how they identify, if possible.
Everyone got their orders, except for one Asian American man who was getting quite frustrated.
Everyone got their orders, except for one person who was getting
quite frustrated.
Students are working to form a club for Asian American students.
Notice that in the first sentence, race or ethnicity has nothing to do with the context. In the third sentence, the race or ethnicity of the students is not important, but the intended function of the club is.
Be careful with the terms African American or Black. Overall, Black is often the preferred adjective for those people of African descent living outside of Africa.
Avoid the offensive usage of race, ethnicity, gender, or sexuality as a noun when referring to individuals or groups of people.
Blacks make up just under ten percent of the school’s population.
Black students make up just under ten percent of the school’s population.
Avoid sexist language
When possible, avoid gendered terms. This often becomes an issue in occupations or roles that have been traditionally gendered.
The issue with using gendered forms where they are not necessary is that it is inherently sexist. Language affects how we think and sexist language reinforces outdated stereotypes.
The post officer cringed when they dropped my package which was marked “fragile.”
Firefighters worked all night to save the building.
The flight attendant ran out of snacks.
After the actor quit, the studio chose to just animate her missing scenes.
Also, avoid adding gendered terms to designate people in occupations and roles that have been traditionally gendered unless it is necessary.
The male nurse was quite efficient.
The nurse was quite efficient.
Nothing about the nurse’s sex is necessary in this example.
The woman detective was able to identify the suspect.
The detective was able to identify the suspect.
Once again, the gender of the detective is not the point.
After all the men in the shop tried to remove the heavy tire, Ava, the only woman mechanic, was able to do-so.
In this case, the mechanic’s gender is important. It is clear that this statement is about gender.
More about sex, gender, and sexuality
Sex (male, female, intersex) is the physical attributes associated with genetic differences in most living things.
Gender is a sociological construct that describes behaviors of people based on the gender with which they identify. Nouns used in discussing gender may include man or woman. Adjectives associated with gender include masculine, feminine, non-gendered, androgenous, and queer.
Sometimes the biological sex of an individual is important to the context, such as in a medical study. However, don’t use the biological terms “male” and “female” as nouns when writing about people. They aren’t in a nature documentary.
One male showed promising results on the new drug, but all the females had negative effects.
One male individual showed promising results on the new drug, but all the female patients had negative effects.
If it is necessary to include gender, then use gender terms, not sex.
Twenty-two men and two women applied for the job.
Sexuality describes who a person is sexually attracted to and/or with whom they participate in sexual activity. Common descriptions of sexuality include heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, pansexual, and asexual. Avoid terms indicating sexuality unless they are necessary in the context of the writing. Do not use adjectives that describe sexuality as nouns.
In a survey, most heterosexuals found the presentation to be engaging, but students who identified as any other sexuality replied negatively.
In a survey, most heterosexual students found the presentation to be engaging, but students who identified as any other sexuality replied negatively.
The term “queer” should be used carefully. Some people prefer the term in reference to gender or sexuality that does not conform to a dichotomy. However, some view it as a slur. It is the name of some academic concepts such as queer theory and queer criticism, but one must be clear how they are using these terms.
The term “Latinx” has been introduced in scholarly writing to replace gendered language in Spanish. It is especially helpful in avoiding the constant repetition of “Latina/Latino” that often happens when discussing Spanish-speaking communities. However, many outside of academics, as well as some Latina/Latino scholars, see this as an unwanted or unneeded constructed term.
Note that none of this is meant to deny the differences that make us who we are, but to treat others with respect and to avoid adding differences in our writing when they aren’t the topic.
